Suicide terrorism

Suicide terrorism Suicide terrorists are said to be fanatics. Discuss this statement with regard to the analysis of suicide terrorism and Asymmetric warfare. This paper is a discussion on modern suicide terrorism, starting with a brief history of suicide terrorism, moving onto definitions, characteristics, theories and the asymmetries of suicide terrorism. Suicide terrorism can be dated back to ancient times; it is the evolution of the suicide bomber that brings the most notoriety. With many analysts such as (Gunaratna, 2000; Winkates, 2006), trace the evolution of modern suicide terrorism to Sri Lanka and Lebanon in the 1980s. Acts of suicide terrorism in the past have been relatively confined and their use limited to a small number of locations around the world. In the last decade there has been a significant expansion in the scope and frequency of suicide terrorist attacks. The number of terrorist attacks fell from 660 in 1988 to 250 in 1998; the number of suicide terrorist attacks was climbing rapidly (Clayton, 2003, p. 18). This increase in suicide attacks during the period 2000-2005 is 2.7 times greater in comparison to the period b eginning in the 1980s and lasting until 1999 (Pedahzur Perlinger, 2006, p. 1987). During the period 2000-2009 the scope of suicide terrorism expanded dramatically, with suicide terrorist attacks in Indonesia (Bali), Sri Lanka, Jordan, Israel, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, the United States, England, Spain, Russia, Chechnya and Bangladesh. Although there have been suicide attacks within the west, it is the rapid increase of attacks within countries such as Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iraq that is the notable with a year on year increase. Saudi Arabia became so alarmed with the rise in suicide terrorism that in April of 2006 the Saudi government announced plans to build a multibillion-dollar electrified fence along its 560 mile border with Iraq (Dreazen Shiskin, 2006, p. A1). According to ISAF, in 2008 suicide bombings increased 26 percent from 2007(ISAF, 2009, toward Security and Stability in Afghanistan, January 2009). There has also been a noticeable change in the individuals who carry out suicide attacks, once seen as mainly carried out by you ng men for either Religious or political reasons and yet there has been an increase in the number of women and children now playing an increasing part in suicide missions . One of the latest attacks took place on the Moscow subway, killing 35 and wounding many more; both of these attack where carried out by female suicide bombers. Suicide terrorism can be seen as inexpensive, deadly, and especially effective in accomplishing terrorists goals (Hoffman, 2003, p. 1; Jalalzai, 2005, p.110) attacks have also become increasingly effective in terms of the destruction they cause and the number of people they kill, as the suicide terrorists adopt new innovations such as explosive vests (Gall, 2006, p. A15).There is an asymmetry within suicide terrorist attacks, western countries have a reliance upon smart weapons in the conflict against those seen as terrorists. These weapons can cause huge amounts of damage without the need to directly attack the enemy with ground troops, thus lessoning the casualties sustained during combat operations. The use of a suicide bomber in effect becomes the human equivalent to the smart bomb. The weapon is self directing to the target, it can make changes to the target location, timing and delivery method on an ad hoc bases making the suicide bomber the ultimate smart bomb (Hoffman 2003). The use the human body as a weapon is not a new phenomenon being well documented through the ages. Pape (2005, p.11) calls the Zealots and the Sicarii the worlds first suicide terrorists. The name sicarrii means dagger-men, who would infiltrate Roman-controlled cities and stab Jewish collaborators or Roman legionnaires with a sica, kidnap the staff of the Temple Guard for ransom, or poison their enemies (Bloom, 2005, p. 8). The Zealots and Sicarii used violence to encourage public uprising, including the Jewish War of AD 66. They would attack their victims in broad daylight and in highly public places with little apparent regard for their own safety or escape. Pape (2005) notes that many of these attacks must have been suicide missions, since the killers were often immediately captured and put to death typically tortured and then crucified or burned alive (p. 12). Assassins were an 11th 12th century Shia Muslim sect from the Nizari state, their name, the assassins comes from the Arabic word hashishiyyin. According to Pape (2005), the Assassins created an effective organization f or the planned, systematic, and long-term use of political murder that relied on suicide missions for success. Pape (2005) reports that between 1945 and 1980, suicide attacks temporarily disappeared from the world scene (p.13). Pape (2005) and others (Laqueur, 2003) note the occurrence of politically- and/or religiously driven hunger strikes and suicides (particularly self-immolations) during this period but Pape (2005) claims there is not a single recorded instance of a suicide terrorist killing others while killing himself (p. 13). Reuter (2004) disagrees, citing a pro-Palestinian Japanese Red Army-sponsored attack on Israels Ben Gurion International Airport on May 20, 1972. In what Reuter (2004) notes as the first suicide attacks in the Middle East, on this day three Japanese gunmen with machine guns killed twenty-four people at the airport. They made no effort to escape, and two were shot dead by the airport guard (Reuter, 2004, p. 136). Inspired by Irans use of human minesweepers against Iraq, Hizbollah, launched a series of attacks against Western and Israeli targets in Lebanon (Winkates, 2006, p. 92). Hizbollah suicide attackers killed 80 and wounded 142 in its April 1983 attack on the American Embassy in Beirut, killed 241 and wounded 81 in its October 1983 attack on the US Marine headquarters near Beirut and its attack against the French Multinational Force, killed 58 and wounded 15 (Winkates, 2006, p. 92). In November 1983, Hizbollah suicide terrorists killed 88 and wounded 69 in an attack on the Israeli Defence Force headquarters in Tyre and a month later killed four and wounded 15 in an attack on the American Embassy in Kuwait (Winkates, 2006, p. 92). Sprinzak (2000) notes that Hizbollah leaders were initially very uneasy about the decision to launch suicide attacks, under the reasoning that Islam does not approve of believers taking their own lives. Hezbollahs spectacular success at achieving its goals of ex pelling foreign forces from all of Lebanon inspired other organizations such as Hamas, Tamil Tigers and al-Qaeda to adopt the suicide terrorist method of attack (Pape, 2005, p. 14). The Tamil Tigers were founded in 1972 as a Marxist, ethnic Tamil, Hindu separatist group seeking independence from the Sinhalese Buddhist majority in Sri Lanka. Their Black Tiger division trained to launch suicide attacks against Sri Lankan political leaders, military targets and civilians (Pape, 2005; Winkates, 2006). Hafez (2006) observed that outside of the Middle East, the Tamil Tigers have led the pack in the number and sophistication of suicide missions. It is estimated that the organization completed some 250 successful suicide attacks between 1987 and 2006 (Hafez, 2006, p. 5). In the early 2000s, ethno nationalist and Islamist Chechens began launching suicide attacks against Russian targets (Hafez, 2006, p. 5). Al Qaeda began launching attacks against American and Saudi targets in the Middle East in the mid-1990s. Al Qaedas spectacular entry into the suicide terrorist hall of fame occurred on August 7, 1998 when suicide terrorists used two delivery trucks loaded with explosives to blow up within minutes of each other, the American embassies in Nairobi, Kenya and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, killing a total of 224 people and injuring more than 4,300 persons (Reuter, 2004, p. 142). A little more than two years later, in October of 2000, Al Qaeda suicide bombers detonated 225 kg of explosive charges alongside the American destroyer, the USS Cole on a refuelling stop in the Yemeni port of Aden, killing 17 American sailors and injuring forty. A year later, Al Qaeda suicide terrorists launched their principal suicide operation and what is described as one of the big gest single suicide terrorist action to date, the 9/11 attacks in the United States, killing about 3,000 (Reuter, 2004, p. 144). This attack lead to explanations of suicide terrorism becoming defined as, first, that the suicide terrorist was irrational and/or mentally ill (Brym Araj, 2006; Pastor, 2004; Wintrobe, 2003).Secondly that the deprivation hypothesis this theory uses the explanation that that suicide terrorists were educationally, economically or otherwise deprived compared to their peers (Brym Araj, 2006; Krueger Maleckova, 2002 .In recent years the Bush Administration has advanced both of these theories in some of its anti-terrorist expression. President Bush repeatedly spoke out against the evil and irrational terrorists who commit these actions. The Bush Administration argued that poverty reduction programs in terrorism-prone regions will reduce the incidence of suicide terrorism (Pastor, 2004; Pape, 2005). Numerous studies have found little or no support for these t wo theories of suicide terrorism, recent studies have provided evidence which directly refutes these theories. Krueger Maleckovas, study in 2002, on the economics and education of suicide bombers directly refutes the deprivation hypothesis of suicide terrorism. Krueger Maleckova 2002 concluded that, the evidence that we have assembled and reviewed suggests that there is little direct connection between poverty, education, and participation in or support for terrorism. Indeed, the available evidence indicates that compared with the relevant population, participantswere at least as likely to come from economically advantaged families and to have a relatively high level of education as they were to come from impoverished families without educational opportunities (Krueger Maleckova 2002 p. 9). Numerous studies have established that overall, suicide terrorists do not suffer from personality disorders or mental illnesses which would explain their participation in suicide terrorism (Berko Erez, 2005). As Wintrobe 2003 argued, it is possible to explain suicide terrorist acts in rational choice terms, and that, while such acts are indeed extreme, they are merely an extreme example of a general class of behaviour in which all of us engage (Wintrobe 2003 p. 2). Explaining that, suicide terrorist is not necessarily irrational. A third theory of suicide terrorism focuses on the influence of culture, especially religious culture, on suicide terrorists (Brym Araj, 2006). These explanations have often been used to explain suicide terrorism among Shia Muslims, based on the tradition of the cult of sacrifice (Hafez, 2006; Bloom, 2005). Although this fails to explain the existence of suicide terrorism among cultures and religions with no established cult of sacrifice and it cannot suff iciently explain suicide terrorism among secular, nationalist groups (Pape, 2005; Hoffman, 2003). Furthermore, as Brym Araj 2006 point to, while such cultural resources likely increase the probability that some groups will engage in suicide attacks, one must be careful not to exaggerate their significance. One difficulty with the clash of civilizations argument is that public opinion polls show that Arabs in the Middle East hold strongly favourable attitudes toward American science and technology, freedom and democracy, education, movies and television, and largely favourable attitudes toward the American people. They hold strongly negative attitudes only toward American Middle East policy. This is less evident of a clash of civilizations than a deep political disagreement (Brym Araj 2006 p. 1973). A more recent theory of suicide terrorism has been offered by Robert Pape (2003, 2005). Based on his analysis of suicide terrorism from 1980 through 2004, Pape presented a three-part model describing the causal logic of suicide terrorism. Papes theory de-emphasizes the role of religion including Islamic fundamentalism and focuses on the role of terrorist organization strategy and secular nationalist objectives. Pape argues that suicide terrorism follows a strategic logic aimed at political coercion (Pape, 2005, p. 21). Pape argues that suicide terrorism is part of an organizations broader campaign to achieve political objectives, usually in response to a foreign occupation. Pape goes on to argue that suicide terrorism also follows a social logic since terrorist organizations often command broad social support within the national communities from which they recruit (Pape, 2005, p. 22). A number of analysts, including Bruce Hoffman (1998, 2003) have advanced explanations of suicide terrorism which propose rationale-choice models emphasizing the role of organizational factors that support Papes theory. Theorists have argued that Papes theory is overly simplistic (Atran, 2006; Bloom, 2005; Brym Araj, 2006). Brym Araj 2006 argues that strategic thinking is only one element that may combine with others in the creation of a suicide bomber (Brym Araj 2006 p. 1972). Atran has recently challenged Papes theory on a number of points, including Papes sampling methods which completely discount the explosion of suicide terrorism in Iraq (Pape 2005, p. 130). Atran calls into question Papes dismissal of the role of ideology and religious fundamentalism as well as his assessments of the effectiveness of suicide terrorism (Atran, 2006, p. 132). Other recently emerging theories of suicide terrorism include Pedahzur Perlingers 2006 social network perspective explaining suicide ter rorism in terms of social motivations and Blooms multi-factor model of suicide terrorism (2005). There is a development towards more complex models of suicide terrorism accounting for the role of individual, social, cultural, strategic, ideological, and organizational motivations and factors in suicide terrorism (Smith, 2004). Defining terrorism especially the suicide terrorism will never be an easy task, as Dershowitz (2002, p.4) observes, there is difficulty in a definition that everyone can agree upon is illustrated by the catchphrase, One mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. Dershowitz (2002, pp. 4-5) breaks down most definitions of terrorism into three main elements: 1) the nature of the targeted victims; 2) the nature of those who commit the violence; and 3) the method by which the terrorist seeks to influence their audiences. Atran (2003, p.1535) observes that the concept of terror as systematic use of violence to attain political ends was first codified by Maximilien Robespierre during the French Revolution. Robespierre saw terror as an emanation of virtue that delivered swift justice (Atran, 2003, p. 1535). Another major difficulty occurs in separating the concepts of terror and terrorism. Pape (2005, p. 9) explains that terrorism involves the use of violence by an organization other th an a national government to intimidate or frighten a target audience. Pape (2005, p. 9) explains further that most terrorist strikes or campaigns have two general purposes: to gain supporters and to coerce opponents. While Papes (2005) definition excludes the possibility of state-sponsored terrorism, numerous other definitions are wide enough to include terrorist acts conducted by or on behalf of a nation state as well as those conducted by private organizations or individuals (Dershowitz, 2005; Winkates, 2006). Winkates (2006,pp. 88-99) defines terrorism as the premeditated threat or use of violence against persons or property, designed to intimidate non combatant victims, the object of which is to change or to stabilize private or public policy. Definitions of suicide terrorism combine the concepts of terrorism and suicide. As with definitions of terrorism, the definitions of suicide terrorism found in the literature vary. Hafez notes, one problem in defining suicidal terrorism concerns the various possible perspectives on the act: how one describes acts of self-immolation committed in order to kill others is a task fraught with controversy. Those whose support these acts of violence prefer to call them martyrdom operations, and their perpetrators heroes and freedom fighters. Those who oppose them prefer to call them homicide bombers, suicide terrorists, or suicidal murderers (Hafez, 2006, p.4). Hafezs own definition of suicide terrorism relies on the more descriptive term of suicide bomber or human bomb which is defined as an individual who willingly uses his or her body to carry or deliver explosives or explosive materials to attack, kill or main others (Hafez, 2006,p. 4). Blooms definition of suicide terrorism is defined as a violent, politically motivated attack, carried out in a deliberate state of awareness by a person who blows himself or herself up together with a chosen target. The premeditated certain death of the perpetrator is the precondition for the success of the attack (2005, p. 76). In terms of the objectives of suicide terrorism, Bloom describes this as, although a suicide attack aims to physically destroy an initial target, its primary use is typically as a weapon of psychological warfare intended to affect a larger public audience. The primary target is not those actually killed or injured in the attack, but those made to witness itThrough indoctrination and training and under charismatic leaders, self contained suicide cells canalize disparate religious or political sentiments of individuals into an emotionally bonded group (Bloom, 2005, p. 77). Pedahzur states that suicide terrorism includes a diversity of violent actions perpetrated by people who are aware that the odds they will return alive are close to zero (2005, p. 8). Pape agrees in that , What distinguishes a suicide terrorist is that the attacker does not expect to survive the mission and often employees a method of attack such as a car bomb, suicide vest, or ramming an airplane into a building that requires his or her death in order to succeed. In essence, suicide terrorists kill others at the same time that they kill themselves (2005, p. 10). Pape further argues that a broad definition of suicide terrorism could include any operation that is designed in such a way that the terrorist does not expect to survive it, even if he or she is actually killed by police or other d efenders. Pape also argues that We might call such operations suicide missions instead of suicide attacks (2005, p. 10). Winkates argues that the best litmus test for definitive suicide terrorism is the intentional and successful sacrifice of a human life to achieve a terrorist objective (2006, p. 89). Hoffman (2003) argues that two key characteristics of suicide terrorism explain its growing popularity with terrorists groups around the world: suicide bombings are inexpensive and effective (p. 2). While coordinated multi-target attacks such as the 9-11 attacks and the London bombings may require extensive planning and considerable investment, even these types of suicide terrorist attacks are less expensive than many conventional terrorist attacks and definitely less expensive than funding an army. The majority of suicide attacks are carried out by individuals, minimizing the amount of investment and administrative overhead. The reliance on human bombs provides terrorists with the ultimate smart bomb (Hoffman, 2003, p. 2). Such smart bombs can be extremely efficient and effective. One of the characteristics of suicide terrorism is its effectiveness against the selected target. As of 2003, suicide terrorism accounted for just three percent of all worldwide terrorist acts, but for 50% of all terrorism-related deaths (Clayton, 2003, p. 18). This is another factor contributing to its effectiveness. The high-kill rate of suicide terrorism increases the amount of terror such attacks instigate in target populations. As Furedi 2007 notes, The threat represented by mass-casualty terrorism is not confined to its capacity for destruction. Public dread of this phenomenon is underpinned by the assumption that this is a treat that is unpredictable and random and its effect incalculable (Furedi, 2007, p .7) adding further to the overall result; suicide terrorism becomes effective in producing fear, justifying its deployment in conflict, by highlighting the unpredictable ability of the act, to produce more fear than the actual act. The act of suicide terrorism highlights an important asymmetry; terrorist need to be successful only once to kill Americans and demonstrate the inherent vulnerabilities they face, (US Congress, 2002). The asymmetry of suicide terrorism is not only the causation destruction, but to seize the attention of Governments and the population of the nation it targets, as Laqueur (1999) notes;Terrorism has been with us for centuries, and it has always attracted inordinate attention because of its dramatic character and its sudden, often wholly unexpected, occurrence. (Laqueur, 1999: p, 3) Asymmetric terrorism reaches out not merely through the use of physical violence but through the symbolic transgression of social morality and national security. Terrorism, as Townshend, (2000); Laqueur, (1999); Chomsky, (2001) have suggested, goes right to heart of what makes us safe; it forces us to pay attention to it whether we want to nor not. The proliferation of video taped messages from leaders of suspected terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda is a testament to the symbol over the actual act of physical violent; there is nothing violent in the images of Osama bin Laden addressing the world through the Aljazeera television networks but it has symbolic presence in a world that is dominated by media and communication technology, as Van der Veer and Munshi (2004) suggest, one of the major successes of modern terrorist organisations is their ability to use the resources of their enemies: the Internet, satellite television, mobile phones and the mass media. Even the condemnation of t errorists in the media, can aid the cause of terrorist organizations; by describing physical acts of violence through the duality of good and evil or right and wrong, the Western media merely serve to elevate and obfuscate the real nature of terrorism which, as research has shown[1], is far more fractured and complex. In this sense, much of the terrorist organizations aim, of seizing attention, is actually carried out by the opposing media; eager for a story and for a simple answer. Suicide terrorism has become a relatively successful military and political strategy; the 9/11 attackers commanded the attention of the world not only through their own efforts but through their targets media; the American television companies, the European press and the global media conglomerates all shared in the process of captivating the publics imagination that, as Towshend(2000) notes; dramatically amplifies the anxiety about security which is never far from the surface of society. (Townshend, 2000 : 8), the communication of the message and the success of this are inextricably linked to the terrorist organisation itself. A highly ordered group with distinct political aims is likely to be more successful in delivering its message than a disparate, non-focused organisation whose aim is to spread confusion and fear. Douglass McFerran(1997) details that many of the IRA campaigns of the 1970s and 80s had distinct short term as well as long term political aims, very often terrorist attacks on mainland Britain were specifically concerned with achieving a specific political target such as protesting over the widespread imprisonment of suspected terrorists or the treatment of those all ready in prison. As Townshend details this is not the case in every terrorist act; the PanAm flight 103 attacks for instance that saw a plane explode over town of Lockerbie in 1988 had no prior demands or message attached to them and very little admission of guilt after (Just, Kern and Norris, 2003: 285).The nature of the attack is likely to influence the success of the communication of demands; Dobkin (1992) details that in 1970 members of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked three airliners in order to not only secure the attention of the worlds media in which they were successful, but to demand the release of a number of Palestinian prisoners in British military jails. Their demands were largely met and most of their hostages were released; however when compared to the contemporary Munich terrorist kidnapping where members of the Black September group killed eleven Israeli athletes in an attempt to secure the release of 236 Palestinian prisoners in Israeli jails.Hoffma n (1998) details that the Munich kidnappings were not only failures in terms of communicating and achieving recognisable demands but also in media manipulation: The Palestinians had not only failed to obtain their principal, stated demand the release of terrorists imprisoned in Israel and West Germany but, to many observers, had hopelessly tarnished the morality of their cause in the eyes of the world. Indeed, international opinion was virtually unanimous in its condemnation of the terrorists operation. (Hoffman, 1998: p, 72). But, again, this can often have the opposite to the desired effect. Robert Singh (2003) suggests that the 9/11 attacks merely served to strengthen the socio-political position of the American people, the very group that came under attack; he also suggests that the security systems around the globe became more vigilant and aware of any gaps in their processes: Rather than initiating a transformation, 9/11 accelerated trends, policies and approaches that were well established. If the attacks most immediate political effects were certainly dramatic the Bush administrations approval ratings soared and public confidence in the federal government attained levels unseen since the early 1960s (Singh, 2003: p,52). Al-Qaeda, built upon this position when coalition forces invaded Iraq and later Afghanistan, the fear that is produced by asymmetric warfare attacks is sometimes seen as the main outcome, Somali rebels succeeded in influencing the American public, after pictures of dead American soldiers where broadcast on CNN, in the same way as the Madrid Suicide bombings had on the Spanish public, directly influencing government policy and leading to the withdrawal of Spanish troops from Iraq, the American government forced by the public outcry pulled troops out of Somalia. With limited resources and limited damage to western societies al-Qaeda, has managed to change the very ideals for which it is said the war on terror is conducted. It has become a norm in Europe that after a terrorist attack, new security legislation and other measures are established to combat the threat of terrorism; however most of these policies seem to neglected the human rights of the citizens. These changes are highlight ed by Arce (et,al 2009) the traditional treatment of terrorism-as-asymmetric-conflict in terms of the relative resource disparity between terrorists and their ultimate targets, an additional asymmetry exists through the definition of success. For the target government, success is defined in terms of security against all possible attacks; whereas for terrorists one success is often enough to alter the political landscape, airways, etc. If one target is successfully attacked, then counter terror policy and the competency of the government itself can be subject to public scrutiny.(Arce, et,al, 2009). Thinking and organizing in a different manor than an opponent in order to amplify advantages and by doing so also exploit an opponents weakness. Changes to asymmetrical warfare have been greatly affected by the digital age, no matter the policy initiatives in trying to undermine the terrorists propaganda and promote its own; the forum of the internet allows suicide attacks to be displayed to a world audience. The filming of Martyr videos and attacks can serve both as a recruitment campaign reaching to all corners of the world and a forewarning to those who oppose terrorism. Understanding and defining suicide terrorism is open to debate; there have been a number of successes in terms of securing specific demands in the past not least of all the 1970 skyjacking operation by the PFLP. However, we have also seen how terrorism can be divisive, how it can engender the very opposite of what it sets out to do. As we saw with the London bombings, a post 9/11 society is one that treats the threat of terrorism as a consequence of modern city living. This is perhaps the one main reason why terrorism may become considered a strong military strategy: today the more terrorist activity there is, the more political value it has, yet the less it affects every day individual life. However, of course, terrorism is perhaps the only strategy that many disenfranchised groups have which may account for its constant presence on the global political stage. Ultimately, however, terrorism is a symbolic act, an act that depends upon fear for its meaning; as the public becomes more and more exposed to images and symbols of terror they also become more and more immune. As Baudrillard suggests (2003) the violence of the terrorist is likely to become merely just another image in the media and the terrorist themselves just another face on the television screen and it is this, ironically, that provides its greatest counter measure. In this essay the difficulty in defining, theorising and understanding has been discussed. The asymmetries involved within terrorism have also been discussed, showing that with the use of digital media and little resources the ability of the target to respond to attack within its own borders can become limited to the change of political policy, which in turn may undermine the authority of the government within its own borders. The September 11 attacks and during the post Cold war era, the world has seen no greater power than the United States. International Relations have seen the control and dominance of the United States over the worlds structure. However, after the Twin Tower attacks, the world started realizing the role of others inside the international arena, these others preferably labeled terrorists; questioned the validity of several theories that were formulated as soon as the end of the Cold War was announced, these theories were trying to predict the shape and attitude of the world as it entered a new era. It has always been known that every era in history adapts an indication that will mark it as distinctive, and therefore all of those theories were simple speculations on the nature of what could be such an indication. Theories valid, some predicted the rise of democracy and liberalism, others feared the return of barbarism and anarchy. Also, other theories predicted a clash that will divide the borders of the world according to culture, civilization, ethnicity, and most importantly religion. The world has dramatically changed with terrorism as the key player. It is also very clear that the asymmetries involved in terrorism are very powerful, as it was able to question the strength of the United States, and was able to reform the political policies of many world countries. Terrorism is the worlds most fearful enemy, an enemy that is powerful, aggressive, and most importantly ambiguous. There is no concession within society on terrorism, for many it is not a problem and life continues, for others it has change their view of world order and politics. BIBLIOGRAPHY 2008 National Defense Authorization Act (Section 1230, Public Law 110-181) http://www.defense.gov/pubs/OCTOBER_1230_FINAL.pdf Accessed 06/04/2010, Arce, Daniel G; Kovenock, Dan; Robertson,B, Suicide Terrorism and the Weakest Link, CESIFO WORKING PAPER NO. 2753,CATEGORY 2: PUBLIC CHOIC

The Rise of Civilization :: World History

The Rise of Civilization Essay: Explain the rise of Civilization and include 3 basic features. A civilization is the starting point of a society. Civilizations have existed for millions of years and are the basic unit of structure for a society. Civilizations were the base of great societies such as Egypt and Rome. If not for civilizations these societies would not have flourished or even existed. A civilization is compiled of eight features. 1. Cities 2. Well-Organized Central Government 3. Complex Religions 4. Job Specialization 5. Social Classes 6. Arts and Architecture 7. Public Works 8. Writings Cities are the central feature of a civilization. The first cities emerged shortly after farmers began cultivating fertile lands along river valleys and producing surplus foods. These surpluses allowed the population to expand. As population grew, some villages expanded into cities. These cities rose independently in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The conditions of river valleys favored farming in these and other such river valleys. Floodwater spread silt across the valley renewing the soil and keeping it fertile. Animals that drank from the river were also a source of food. The river also supplied the people with a regular source of drinking water and the means of transportation. However rivers also posed challenges. Farmers had to control flooding and channel waters to the fields. Early farmers built dikes, dug canals and also made irrigation ditches. Such projects required leadership and a well-organized government. A government was required to lead the people and aid in organizing a city. City governments were far more powerful than the council of elders and local chiefs of farming villages. At first, Priest probably had the greatest. In time, warrior kings came to power as chief political leaders. They soon set themselves up as the chief hereditary ruler and passed their power from father to son. Governments soon became more complex as rulers issued laws, collected taxes, and organizes systems of defense. To enforce order, rulers relied on royal officials. Over time, government bureaucracies evolved. Almost always rulers claimed their power came from god or divine right. These rulers then gained religious power as well.

Dusk by Saki Essay

Another one of Saki’s dark tales, Dusk reveals the author’s ironic view of man’s infinite capacity for misunderstanding one another. Along the duration of the story, the protagonist, Gortsby, watches and observes people scurrying about at dusk, sitting at a park bench. Inwardly, he believes the people whom he observes looked defeated, and reciprocates dusk as a representation of the time of defeat for humans. The short story features an objective limited point of view, most of the characterization of Gortsby occurs through Saki’s pen on Gortsby’s thoughts. The character possesses a cynical view of the human state and has probably experienced some sort of defeat of his own – Saki never mentioned what sort of failure Gortsby was facing, the only information given was that he had no financial troubles. The story emphasizes on the misjudgement of character by Gortsby of the young male; the theme of the dysfunctions of a subjective mind is a rather importunate throughout. Saki shows this through a shift in Gortsby’s trust in the young lad. He was reluctant to believe in a stranger whose story seemed so plentiful at the beginning, but later surrenders to the boy’s mischief in trying to cheat Gortsby for money. Our protagonist not only gave the young boy money, but had also been transformed by the lie woven. He apologizes, â€Å"excuse my disbelief, but appearances were really rather against you†¦ † This shows how easily the human mind is swayed by external forces (in this case, Gortsby was influenced by the young lad’s lie), and the failures of Gortsby’s original claims of being an excellent judge of character when he was obviously unable to see through the young man’s lie. It was only moments later, the first old man returns to the bench, informing Gortsby that he was looking for his bar of soap; the soap of which Gortsby thought was the young man’s. The truth is finally appealed. However, Saki’s left a twist in the ending for readers to guess Gortsby’s reaction, an element of surprise is apparent. From the â€Å"cliff†, readers can presume to guess Gortsby had realized his misjudgement of character and would therefore recognize the dysfunctions of his overtly confident, self-assured judgmental mind.

My Psychosocial Stage of Development Essay - 1202 Words

My Psychosocial Stage of Development S. Pulliam April, 2011 First I would like to define psychosocial development; this is the development of the personality or the acquisition of social attitude and skill from infancy through maturity. Based on the charting from Erickson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development, I fall into two separate categories based on my age. From the beliefs of Erickson, he believed that the achievements and failures of earlier stages influence later stages, whereas later stages modify and transform earlier ones (Erickson, 1980). The first is Young Adulthood and the second is Middle Adulthood. In the two stages from the chart the information is based on (Young adulthood) Intimacy v/s Isolation and the second†¦show more content†¦I have male friends that I am social with but I do not allow the intimacy line to be crossed because of my relationship with my husband. The influence that I see in middle adulthood is the need to have a nurturing relationship with my children and creating a positive change to benefit my children lives. In looking at this I made changes in the way I approached my children and how I would not shelter them from the truth when they would ask me questions but give them true answer to their question. As small children I did not feel the need to give much explanation to my children’s questions but now I try to explain everything to them without being untruthful to them or give them false ideas about what is going on around them. To explain the positive and negative outcomes to psychosocial stages of development, I would have to say that there are many positive and negative but the few that stand out to me the most are. First negative outcome, getting over insecurities I had about the intimacy relationship that I chose to take on after breaking off a 10 year relationship with my children’s father. The second negative outcome was getting over the trust issues I had before going into the current marriage that I am in right now. The third negative outcome was getting pass the change of personality and ways I had to endure going into the marriage and getting use to a new personality and making the changes on both parts to make ourShow MoreRelatedBiological Narrative1617 Words   |  7 Pagesstudies with psychosocial development, or the development of a person within a social context. Eric Erickson’s theories focused primarily on the correlation of the release of sexual tension and psychosexual development. The purpose of this paper is for the author to develop a personal portrait integrating Erickson’s developmental theory, Kohlberg’s moral development, and gender and cultural influences. The author will discuss his development from birth to his current stage of development in his lifeRead MoreErikson s Psychosocial Theory : Development Of Ego Identity1293 Words   |  6 PagesZoi Arvanitidis 05/16/17 ECEE-310 Dr.Alkins Studying Erikson’s Psychosocial theory Erik Erikson was a student of another theorist, Sigmund Freud. Erikson expanded on Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson later developed the psychosocial theory. This theory described the effect of one’s social experiences throughout one’s whole lifespan. One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial theory is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we developRead MoreErik Erikson s Psychosocial Theory Essay1155 Words   |  5 Pagesmany methods for studying human social development. In Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory, social interactions are an important and determining factor of lifespan development. Although Erikson was influenced by many of Sigmund Freud’s studies, his studies were based upon psychosocial development versus psychosexual development. Erikson, like Freud, emphasized the importance of childhood on personality development, but unlike Freud, he believed that development occu rred across the entire lifespan. Read MoreVygotsky s Theory Of Cognitive Development1149 Words   |  5 PagesCognitive Development in children. According to the text, â€Å"Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes that a child’s intellect, or cognitive ability, progress through four distinct stages† (Pg. 25). The stages are Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operational Stage, and Formal Operational Stage. Piaget found that each stage occurs as a child ages. He also suggested that child cannot skip a stage. According to the text, Vygotsky’s concepts on cognitive development is basedRead MoreThe Eight Stages Of Psychosocial Development814 Words   |  4 PagesRational Understanding the eight stages of psychosocial development in a practical sense is vital to building a healthy student teacher relationship. I selected this theory to gain an understanding of how to effectively interact with my future students. This theory refines my ability to identify and gage my student’s unique psychological developmental progress. A deeper understanding of this enables me the ability to identify key developmental milestones and improve my lesson plans accordingly. I selectedRead MoreErikson s Psychosocial Theory And Psychosocial Development1561 Words   |  7 Pagesfurther understand human behavior. However, this paper will focus on only two theories which are; Erikson’s psychosocial theory and Alfred Adler’s Adlerian theory. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development has always been a great contribution to the field of psychology by Erik Erikson (Berk, 2007). Erikson suggested that everyone experiences a series of psychosocial stages instead of psychosexual stages as proposed by Sigmund Freud. Despite the fact that Erikson disagreed with Sigmund Freud in so many areasRead MoreUnderstanding and Developing Essay1088 Words   |  5 Pageslife. Human development occurs at different stages, throughout the life span. A child will experience many milestones from birth to toddlerhood, throughout early and middle childhood, and several theories for these milestones. Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, and Erik Erikson classify their different theories of the stages of life in three unique domains: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial/emotional. Infancy/Toddlerhood (0-3) and Domain Physical The physical domain of lifespan development is continuallyRead MoreI Find This Journal Article Interesting As It Discussed1335 Words   |  6 Pagesconsequences of midlife psychosocial development in relation to late-life cognitive and emotional health. It is relevant in my age group, particularly in my husband’s case who is in his mid-thirties. Although I have been aware of the implications of certain psychosocial factors in someone’s well-being, I wanted to know the other aspects of midlife psychosocial development and its effect as the person ages. 2. A summary of related literature or studies Erikson’s psychosocial development theory became theRead MoreThe Effects Of Midlife Psychosocial Development On Cognitive And Emotional Health1331 Words   |  6 Pagesconsequences of midlife psychosocial development in relation to late-life cognitive and emotional health. It is relevant in my age group particularly in my husband’s case who is in his mid-thirties. Although I have been aware of the implications of certain psychosocial factors in someone’s well-being, I wanted to know the other aspects of midlife psychosocial development and its effect as the person ages. 2. Summary of related literature or studies Erikson’s psychosocial development theory became theRead MorePsychology Life Spans1433 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Development Throughout the Lifespan NAME. PSY : Personality Theories Argosy University Development throughout the Lifespan The development of our personalities throughout our lifespan can be broken down into various stages when considering Erikson’s approach to psychology development. Each person moves through these stages during life, which directly affects his or her success in the next stage. The personality is being built and shaped at each stage. The first step is to